Bose, who was born in Mymensingh (which is now in Bangladesh), began his studies in London as a medical student. He then won a scholarship to Cambridge University, from where he graduated in natural sciences in 1884. He was appointed professor of physical science at Presidency College, Calcutta, in 1885 and retained this post until 1915. In 1917 he founded and became director of the Bose Research Institute, Calcutta. He was knighted in 1917 and in 1920 became one of the first Indians to be elected a fellow of the Royal Society.

Bose's early research was on the properties of very short radio waves – work in which he showed their similarity to light. He also designed an improved version of Oliver Lodge's coherer, then used to detect radio waves, and as a result was able to put forward a general theory of the properties of contact-sensitive materials.

His most famous work concerned his investigations into plant physiology and the similarities between the behavioral response of plant and animal tissue. By devising extremely sensitive instruments he was able to demonstrate the minute movements of plants to external stimuli and to measure their rate of growth. While his experimental skill was widely admired, this work did not at the time gain universal acceptance.