A form of capital punishment used by various ancient peoples including the Persians, Carthaginians, and Romans for criminals, usually applicable only to slaves and other persons with no civil rights. The victim, nailed or roped to a crossbar, was hoisted on to an upright to form a ‘T’ or cross. Spartacus, with 6000 rebels, was crucified in 71 bc, as was Jesus Christ (c.30 ad). Romans regarded the cross with horror. Only after the emperor Constantine abolished this form of penalty did Christians adopt the cross as a symbol.