Natural forest, found between 55° and 66°N, where winters are long and very cold, summers short and warm, and annual precipitation is around 600 mm. Pure stands are common and species relatively few. Trees are evergreen, and the needle-shaped leaves restrict surface area, thus preventing loss of water via transpiration. Undergrowth is sparse. Animal species are dominated by insects and seed-eating rodents; larger animals include deer, bear, and wolves. See Väisänen (1995) IUFRO XX World Congr.