A global, rather than local, growth pole, which M. Castells (2014) calls a key feature of national economic development. Technopoles include three major types: industrial complex of high-tech firms, emerging spontaneously, and linking research and development with manufacturing. See Wang et al. (1998) Asia Pac. Viewpt 39, 3 on the development of technopoles in China, and Fontan et al. (2004) Canadian J. Urb. Res. 13, 2 on the Angus Technopole in Montreal: ‘a new type of community initiative which combines endogenous and community development with business oriented projects.’