The physical universe beyond the Earth's atmosphere. MacDonald (2007) PHG 31, 5 aims to establish outer space as a mainstream concern of critical geography. ‘More than half a century after humans first cast their instruments into orbit, contemporary human geography has been slow to explore the myriad connections that tie social life on Earth to the celestial realm. My starting point is a return to an early-modern geographical imagination that acknowledges the reciprocity between heaven and earth.’ Warf (2007) Tijdschrift 98, 3 reminds us that, although satellites circulate in outer space, their origins and impacts are very much on the ground. See T. Sandler (1980) on the exploitation of outer space.