Originally a Scot who opposed the ecclesiastical innovations of Charles I of England. Drawn from all parts of Scotland and all sections of society, Covenanters subscribed to the National Covenant of 1638. This was a revised version of a previous covenant (1581), which had been signed by James VI of Scotland. They swore to resist ‘episcopal’ (the church governed by bishops) religious changes, and, in the event of such changes, they set up a full Presbyterian system and defended it in the Bishops’ Wars. They hoped to impose their system on England in 1643, by drawing up the Solemn League and Covenant with the Long Parliament. Disappointed in this, they turned in 1650 to Charles II, who signed the Covenant, but then abjured it at his Restoration (1660), condemning it as an unlawful oath. In Scotland in 1661 the episcopacy was re-established, and Covenanters were badly treated. In 1690, the Presbyterian Church of Scotland was established.