In academic life, the methods used to check the validity of a finished piece of research. ‘Validation in quantitative methods involves the calculation of statistical errors, whereas in qualitative methods validation methods include cross-checking or triangulation with other methods; theoretical saturation, or the point at which no new information is gained; and adherences to a code of conduct believed to ensure accurate results’ (Nightingale, in R. Kitchin and N. Thrift 2009).