Networks of municipalities that operate nationally and transnationally, directly representing and involving cities in policy issues at the international and European levels, and across national borders: the transnational activities of municipal urban governments. TMNs became a pivotal feature of mainstream policy in the European Union from the mid-1980s; P.-Y. Saunier and S. Ewen (2008) cover the history of TMNs. Transnational urbanism represents the ways in which cities are ever more defined by all sorts of connections to faraway places (A. Latham et al. 2009).