At first a schoolmaster, in 1949 he joined the African National Congress (ANC). In 1959 he became its President and led opposition to the Central African Federation, instituting a campaign of “positive non-violent action”. For this he was imprisoned by the British, and the movement was banned. He was released in 1960 and was elected President of the newly formed United National Independence Party (UNIP). The UNIP became the leading party when independence was granted to Zambia in 1964 and Kaunda became the first President of the new republic. During his presidency education expanded and the government made efforts to diversify the economy to release Zambia from its dependence on copper. Ethnic differences, the Rhodesian and Angolan conflicts, and the collapse of copper prices engendered unrest and political violence, which led Kaunda to institute a one-party state (1973). Later, with the civil war in Angola, he assumed emergency powers. Nevertheless, he was re-elected President in 1978, again in 1983, and in 1988. He legalized opposition parties in 1990, but was defeated by the trade-union leader Frederick Chiluba in the multiparty presidential election held in November 1991. In January 1992 he resigned as leader of the UNIP. He returned to politics in 1995, but was barred from standing in the 1996 presidential election; he finally resigned as UNIP president in 2000. In late 1997 he was arrested and accused of inciting a coup, but the charges were dropped in 1998. His Zambian citizenship was withdrawn in 1999 but restored in 2000. He was a staunch supporter of the Commonwealth of Nations and took a strong line in demanding sanctions against South Africa for its policy of apartheid.