Smith (2001) Transnational Urbanism notes that each member of the global–local binary has been allocated a distinctive set of attributes; global is a synonym for dynamic, thrusting, open, rational cosmopolitan, dominant, masculinized, and economic, while ‘local’ suggests authentic, closed, static, nostalgic, defensive but defenceless, feminized, and cultural. However, Ley (2004) TIBG 29, 2 argues that ‘the global is also the local’.