“feminism”的概念、定义、翻译、参考文献-科学参考

feminism

Philosophy

The approach to social life, philosophy, and ethics that commits itself to correcting biases leading to the subordination of women or the disparagement of women’s particular experience and of the voices women bring to discussion. Contemporary feminist ethics is sensitive to the gender bias that may be implicit in philosophical theories (for instance, philosophers’ lists of virtues may be typically ‘manly’ or culturally masculine), and in social structures, legal and political procedures, and the general culture. One controversial claim (influentially made in Carol Gilligan, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development, 1982) is that women approach practical reasoning from a different perspective from that of men. The difference includes emphasis on community, caring, and bonding with particular individuals, in place of abstract impartiality. It is controversial whether or not this is a real difference, and if so whether it arises from innate differences in male and female psychology, or whether the different values reflect the way men and women have been taught to form different aspirations and ideals.
Feminist epistemology has asked whether different ways of knowing, for instance with different criteria of justification, and different emphases on logic and imagination, characterize male and female attempts to understand the world. Such concerns include awareness of the ‘masculine’ self-image, itself a socially variable and potentially distorting picture of what thought and action should be. A particular target of much feminist epistemology is a Kantian or Enlightenment conception of rationality, which is seen as a device for claiming mastery and control, and for refusing to acknowledge differing perspectives and different relations to life and nature. Although extreme claims have been made, such as that logic is a phallic and patriarchal device for coercing other people, it is still unclear how differences between individual capacities, training, and culturally reinforced aspirations, work together in explaining how people acquire knowledge. Again there is a spectrum of concern, from the highly theoretical to the relatively practical. In this latter area particular attention is given to the institutional biases that stand in the way of equal opportunities in science and other academic pursuits, or the ideologies that stand in the way of women seeing themselves as leading contributors to various disciplines. However, to more radical feminists such concerns merely exhibit women wanting for themselves the same power and rights over others that men have claimed, and failing to confront the real problem, which is how to live without such asymmetrical powers and rights. See also essentialism, neurosexism.

World History

A broad-based movement concerning the social, political, and economic rights of women. Its advocates have for the most part demanded equal rights for both sexes, although some have asserted the right of women to separate development. Throughout the ages women had generally been subordinated to men and largely excluded from education, from the ownership of property, from economic independence, and from political representation. A recognizable movement to rectify woman’s subordinate position began at the end of the 18th century, finding its British mouthpiece in Mary Wollstonecraft, whose classic A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) has remained a key work.
Contemporary feminism has its roots in such works as Simone de Beauvoir’s The Second Sex (1949); The Feminine Mystique (1963) by the US feminist Betty Friedan; Sexual Politics (1969) by the US writer Kate Millett; The Female Eunuch (1970) by Germaine Greer; Adrienne Rich’s Of Woman Born (1977); and Gyn/Ecology (1979) by Mary Daly. In particular, the later 1960s saw the advent of women’s liberation (popularly known as Women’s Lib), arguing that male domination is implicit in all personal and professional relationships. It demanded the improvement of women’s status in society and was concerned with changing stereotypes of both sexes. Women’s liberation was especially vocal and active as a movement in the USA; in 1966 the National Organization for Women (NOW) was formed in the USA and has remained active since. Practical demands were focused on the right to equal pay and opportunities. In Britain the Sex Discrimination Acts (1975 and 1986) and the creation of the Equal Opportunities Commission in 1975 gave legal effect to some demands, although some employment practices and financial rewards still fail to achieve equality.
During the 1970s women’s liberation gave way to a broader feminist movement, which sponsored public campaigns on such issues as abortion, childcare provision, pornography, and domestic violence against women. Other aspects of the movement have aimed to integrate the interests of women who are not of the dominant culture (for example, women of colour, working-class women, and lesbians, who individually have contributed much to the movement) into mainstream feminism, while continuing to strive for gender equality in the workplace and at home.
In developing countries, feminists have been faced with a different order of problem. Women in such countries generally suffer from a greater degree of inequality than their counterparts in Western countries. Their participation in the paid labour force and their literacy rates tend to be lower, and their fertility rates and maternal mortality rates tend to be higher. Less access to education, combined with religious or social traditions, is responsible for women’s limited role in economic, public, and political life. The revival of Islamic fundamentalism, with its enforced social isolation of women Purdah, has led to the establishment of segregated systems of banking, commerce, and education in Muslim communities. Nevertheless, in many countries women have tried to improve their status, for example by opposing divisive legal and seclusion codes, and by campaigning against genital mutilation (female circumcision). In Africa, development groups are now supporting women agriculturalists (who produce 70% of the continent’s food) by giving women greater access to and control of technology.

单词	feminism
释义	feminism Philosophy The approach to social life, philosophy, and ethics that commits itself to correcting biases leading to the subordination of women or the disparagement of women’s particular experience and of the voices women bring to discussion. Contemporary feminist ethics is sensitive to the gender bias that may be implicit in philosophical theories (for instance, philosophers’ lists of virtues may be typically ‘manly’ or culturally masculine), and in social structures, legal and political procedures, and the general culture. One controversial claim (influentially made in Carol Gilligan, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development, 1982) is that women approach practical reasoning from a different perspective from that of men. The difference includes emphasis on community, caring, and bonding with particular individuals, in place of abstract impartiality. It is controversial whether or not this is a real difference, and if so whether it arises from innate differences in male and female psychology, or whether the different values reflect the way men and women have been taught to form different aspirations and ideals. Feminist epistemology has asked whether different ways of knowing, for instance with different criteria of justification, and different emphases on logic and imagination, characterize male and female attempts to understand the world. Such concerns include awareness of the ‘masculine’ self-image, itself a socially variable and potentially distorting picture of what thought and action should be. A particular target of much feminist epistemology is a Kantian or Enlightenment conception of rationality, which is seen as a device for claiming mastery and control, and for refusing to acknowledge differing perspectives and different relations to life and nature. Although extreme claims have been made, such as that logic is a phallic and patriarchal device for coercing other people, it is still unclear how differences between individual capacities, training, and culturally reinforced aspirations, work together in explaining how people acquire knowledge. Again there is a spectrum of concern, from the highly theoretical to the relatively practical. In this latter area particular attention is given to the institutional biases that stand in the way of equal opportunities in science and other academic pursuits, or the ideologies that stand in the way of women seeing themselves as leading contributors to various disciplines. However, to more radical feminists such concerns merely exhibit women wanting for themselves the same power and rights over others that men have claimed, and failing to confront the real problem, which is how to live without such asymmetrical powers and rights. See also essentialism, neurosexism. World History A broad-based movement concerning the social, political, and economic rights of women. Its advocates have for the most part demanded equal rights for both sexes, although some have asserted the right of women to separate development. Throughout the ages women had generally been subordinated to men and largely excluded from education, from the ownership of property, from economic independence, and from political representation. A recognizable movement to rectify woman’s subordinate position began at the end of the 18th century, finding its British mouthpiece in Mary Wollstonecraft, whose classic A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792) has remained a key work. Contemporary feminism has its roots in such works as Simone de Beauvoir’s The Second Sex (1949); The Feminine Mystique (1963) by the US feminist Betty Friedan; Sexual Politics (1969) by the US writer Kate Millett; The Female Eunuch (1970) by Germaine Greer; Adrienne Rich’s Of Woman Born (1977); and Gyn/Ecology (1979) by Mary Daly. In particular, the later 1960s saw the advent of women’s liberation (popularly known as Women’s Lib), arguing that male domination is implicit in all personal and professional relationships. It demanded the improvement of women’s status in society and was concerned with changing stereotypes of both sexes. Women’s liberation was especially vocal and active as a movement in the USA; in 1966 the National Organization for Women (NOW) was formed in the USA and has remained active since. Practical demands were focused on the right to equal pay and opportunities. In Britain the Sex Discrimination Acts (1975 and 1986) and the creation of the Equal Opportunities Commission in 1975 gave legal effect to some demands, although some employment practices and financial rewards still fail to achieve equality. During the 1970s women’s liberation gave way to a broader feminist movement, which sponsored public campaigns on such issues as abortion, childcare provision, pornography, and domestic violence against women. Other aspects of the movement have aimed to integrate the interests of women who are not of the dominant culture (for example, women of colour, working-class women, and lesbians, who individually have contributed much to the movement) into mainstream feminism, while continuing to strive for gender equality in the workplace and at home. In developing countries, feminists have been faced with a different order of problem. Women in such countries generally suffer from a greater degree of inequality than their counterparts in Western countries. Their participation in the paid labour force and their literacy rates tend to be lower, and their fertility rates and maternal mortality rates tend to be higher. Less access to education, combined with religious or social traditions, is responsible for women’s limited role in economic, public, and political life. The revival of Islamic fundamentalism, with its enforced social isolation of women Purdah, has led to the establishment of segregated systems of banking, commerce, and education in Muslim communities. Nevertheless, in many countries women have tried to improve their status, for example by opposing divisive legal and seclusion codes, and by campaigning against genital mutilation (female circumcision). In Africa, development groups are now supporting women agriculturalists (who produce 70% of the continent’s food) by giving women greater access to and control of technology.
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