Barnett (2005) PHG 29, 1 finds two quite distinct understandings of otherness. One is based upon the empirical analysis of the ways in which identities are constructed through exclusion or denigration. In the second, the movement between identity and difference is understood to be ontologically constitutive of any and all subjectivity (P. Osborne 2000). ‘By running these two understandings of otherness together, the uncovering of exclusion becomes the taken-for-granted manoeuvre of critical analysis for poststructuralized geography, according to which the cultural other is necessarily posited as the unstable foundation of hegemonic identities.’ Kuus (2004) PHG 28 finds ‘a broadly orientalist discourse that assumes essential difference between Europe and Eastern Europe and frames difference from Western Europe as a distance from and a lack of Europeanness’. J. Wedel (2001) observes that the assumption of otherness is not only inscribed on east-central Europe by the West but is also appropriated by east-central Europeans themselves. J. Perlman (2011) argues that ‘cultural otherness, or the othering of certain groups within a society as inferior and non-existent, perpetuates social and economic inequalities. Therefore, favelados are unable to obtain personhood because they are othered as inferior degenerates within Brazilian society’.