“capitalism”的概念、定义、翻译、参考文献-科学参考

capitalism

Geography

An economic system based on private property and private enterprise, with a major proportion of economic activity carried on by private profit-seeking individuals or organizations, and other material means of production largely privately owned. Capitalism never stands still. Its central imperative—the search for profit and wealth creation—‘drives a perpetual process of economic flux’ (Boschma and Martin (2007) J. Econ. Geog. 7, 5). This flux is powered by innovation: ‘the production, acquisition, absorption, reproduction, and dissemination of knowledge is seen by many as the fundamental characteristic of contemporary competitive dynamics’ (Gertler (2003) J. Econ. Geog. 3).
‘Innovation and growth are at the heart of the capitalist system…As new large-scale technologies develop; new forms of firm and factory organisations result in increasingly global value chains producing for global market’ (Kaplinsky (2008) Geog. Compass 2, 1). See also Metcalfe et al. (2006) Camb. J. Econ. 30, 7–32. Accumulation is at the heart of capitalism—Buck (2007) Antipode 39, 4 notes the periodic crises of over-accumulation. A feature of advanced capitalism is the possession of capital by fewer and fewer owners.
Capitalism is not uniform: ‘nation-states have different trajectories of capitalist development, in which there is considerable variation in the role of markets’ (J. Hollingsworth and R. Boyer 1997). Peck and Theodore (2007) PHG 31, 6 note ‘the persistence of…real institutional differences—and the instituted space-economies with which they are associated’ and Soskice (1997) Indust. & Innov. 4 argues that different national institutional frameworks support different forms of capitalism. See H. Wai-Chung Yeung (2006) and Buck (op. cit.) on Chinese capitalism; E. M. Wood (2003) on English capitalism, M. Wiener (1985) on British capitalism, ‘enervated by gentry values’; and Clarke (2007) TIBG 32, 1 on British capitalism ‘that conceals its destructive effects under the cloak of oldness’. Colas (2005) Contemp. Polit. 11, 2–3 explains that capital constantly searches for fresh markets, leading inevitably to ‘spatial expansion, as new lands, peoples and resources are exposed to the “law of value”’. ‘Spatial differentiation is the fundamental building block of capitalism’ (Clark (1985) Econ. Geog. 61, 3). Vagabond capitalism is an increasingly global capitalist production that can discard many of its commitments to place: ‘at worst, this disengagement hurls certain people into forms of vagabondage; at best, it leaves people in all parts of the world struggling to secure the material goods and social practices associated with social reproduction’ (Katz (2001) Antipode 33, 4).
D. Harvey (1985) holds that the inner contradictions of capitalism are expressed through the formation and re-formation of geographical landscapes. Cox, Ohio State U., picks up on this: ‘instead of towns organized around cathedrals we have towns organized around “central business districts”. Capitalist societies are characterized by extraordinarily differentiated geographic divisions of production.’ Similarly, Clark (op. cit.) claims that ‘the longue durée of a capitalist development trajectory diverted Britain away from the path bequeathing continental European cities their particular flavour in favour of a voracious, London-centred colonial capitalism’. Brown (2007) PHG 32, 4 sees enclosure—the appropriation and privatization of previously common, public or open access resources—as promoted by global capitalism, and commodification and capital.
‘Capital reproduces the peaceful civility of the private contract amongst seemingly free and equal individuals so long as the exploited party accedes to its own subordination—once there is significant resistance to the terms and conditions of the contract, the hidden hand of the market becomes the visible fist of the state’ (Colas, op. cit.). I. Boal et al. (2005) go further: ‘war is virtually synonymous with the capitalist state.’ ‘Urban transformation processes are largely the outcome of space wars, in that deliberate and systematic creative destruction is part of the logic behind current capitalist space economy. These spatial struggles have often been staged in city streets’ (Hansen (2008) Liminalities 4, 1).
Buck (2007) Variant 28 doesn’t believe that human-induced global warming will finally destroy capitalism: ‘while capitalism may survive, this is not to say that we can safely embrace rosy visions of utopian futures.’ See Peck and Theodor (op. cit.) and Faulconbridge (2008) J. Econ. Geog. 8, 4 on varieties of capitalism.

Philosophy

Mode of socioeconomic organization in which a class of entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial institutions provide the capital with which businesses produce goods and services and employ workers. In return the capitalist extracts profits from the goods created. Capitalism is frequently seen as the embodiment of the market economy, and hence may result in the optimum distribution of scarce resources, with a resulting improvement for all; this optimism is countered by pointing to the opportunity for exploitation inherent in the system.

Economics

The economic system based on private ownership of property and private enterprise. Under this system all, or a major proportion of, economic activity is undertaken by private profit-seeking individuals or organizations, and land and other material means of production are largely privately owned. Under capitalism parts of the economy may be in public ownership. The government may impose certain regulations on the activities of the private sector regarding public health and safety, enforcement of competition, and protection of the environment. Such regulation, however, typically has a form of restrictions: the rules lay down what individuals or firms may not do, but initiative about what is done within these rules is decentralized.

World History

A system of economic organization, based on market competition, under which the means of production, distribution, and exchange are privately owned and directed by individuals or corporations. All human production requires both labour and capital. In a capitalist system, capital is supplied either by the single owner of a firm, or by shareholders in the case of a joint-stock company. Labour is supplied separately by employees who receive a wage or salary. The residual profit of the firm after wages and costs have been paid accrues to the owners of the capital. Firms compete with one another to sell to customers in what is primarily a free market. In its most developed form capitalism, which is based on the principle that economic decisions should be taken by private individuals, restricts the role of the state in economic policy to the minimum. It thus stands for free trade. During the 20th century capitalist societies were modified in various ways: often a capitalist economy was accompanied by the development of a welfare state, as in western Europe. Another development was the mixed economy, in which the production of certain goods or services was nationalized, while the rest of the economy remained in private ownership. However, the late 20th century saw a reduction of state involvement in and regulation of the economy, with state-owned industries being privatized and a renewed emphasis on the primacy of the market. Recent decades have also seen the growth of multinational companies operating across national frontiers (see globalization), often controlling greater economic resources than small- or medium-sized states.

单词	capitalism
释义	capitalism Geography An economic system based on private property and private enterprise, with a major proportion of economic activity carried on by private profit-seeking individuals or organizations, and other material means of production largely privately owned. Capitalism never stands still. Its central imperative—the search for profit and wealth creation—‘drives a perpetual process of economic flux’ (Boschma and Martin (2007) J. Econ. Geog. 7, 5). This flux is powered by innovation: ‘the production, acquisition, absorption, reproduction, and dissemination of knowledge is seen by many as the fundamental characteristic of contemporary competitive dynamics’ (Gertler (2003) J. Econ. Geog. 3). ‘Innovation and growth are at the heart of the capitalist system…As new large-scale technologies develop; new forms of firm and factory organisations result in increasingly global value chains producing for global market’ (Kaplinsky (2008) Geog. Compass 2, 1). See also Metcalfe et al. (2006) Camb. J. Econ. 30, 7–32. Accumulation is at the heart of capitalism—Buck (2007) Antipode 39, 4 notes the periodic crises of over-accumulation. A feature of advanced capitalism is the possession of capital by fewer and fewer owners. Capitalism is not uniform: ‘nation-states have different trajectories of capitalist development, in which there is considerable variation in the role of markets’ (J. Hollingsworth and R. Boyer 1997). Peck and Theodore (2007) PHG 31, 6 note ‘the persistence of…real institutional differences—and the instituted space-economies with which they are associated’ and Soskice (1997) Indust. & Innov. 4 argues that different national institutional frameworks support different forms of capitalism. See H. Wai-Chung Yeung (2006) and Buck (op. cit.) on Chinese capitalism; E. M. Wood (2003) on English capitalism, M. Wiener (1985) on British capitalism, ‘enervated by gentry values’; and Clarke (2007) TIBG 32, 1 on British capitalism ‘that conceals its destructive effects under the cloak of oldness’. Colas (2005) Contemp. Polit. 11, 2–3 explains that capital constantly searches for fresh markets, leading inevitably to ‘spatial expansion, as new lands, peoples and resources are exposed to the “law of value”’. ‘Spatial differentiation is the fundamental building block of capitalism’ (Clark (1985) Econ. Geog. 61, 3). Vagabond capitalism is an increasingly global capitalist production that can discard many of its commitments to place: ‘at worst, this disengagement hurls certain people into forms of vagabondage; at best, it leaves people in all parts of the world struggling to secure the material goods and social practices associated with social reproduction’ (Katz (2001) Antipode 33, 4). D. Harvey (1985) holds that the inner contradictions of capitalism are expressed through the formation and re-formation of geographical landscapes. Cox, Ohio State U., picks up on this: ‘instead of towns organized around cathedrals we have towns organized around “central business districts”. Capitalist societies are characterized by extraordinarily differentiated geographic divisions of production.’ Similarly, Clark (op. cit.) claims that ‘the longue durée of a capitalist development trajectory diverted Britain away from the path bequeathing continental European cities their particular flavour in favour of a voracious, London-centred colonial capitalism’. Brown (2007) PHG 32, 4 sees enclosure—the appropriation and privatization of previously common, public or open access resources—as promoted by global capitalism, and commodification and capital. ‘Capital reproduces the peaceful civility of the private contract amongst seemingly free and equal individuals so long as the exploited party accedes to its own subordination—once there is significant resistance to the terms and conditions of the contract, the hidden hand of the market becomes the visible fist of the state’ (Colas, op. cit.). I. Boal et al. (2005) go further: ‘war is virtually synonymous with the capitalist state.’ ‘Urban transformation processes are largely the outcome of space wars, in that deliberate and systematic creative destruction is part of the logic behind current capitalist space economy. These spatial struggles have often been staged in city streets’ (Hansen (2008) Liminalities 4, 1). Buck (2007) Variant 28 doesn’t believe that human-induced global warming will finally destroy capitalism: ‘while capitalism may survive, this is not to say that we can safely embrace rosy visions of utopian futures.’ See Peck and Theodor (op. cit.) and Faulconbridge (2008) J. Econ. Geog. 8, 4 on varieties of capitalism. Philosophy Mode of socioeconomic organization in which a class of entrepreneurs and entrepreneurial institutions provide the capital with which businesses produce goods and services and employ workers. In return the capitalist extracts profits from the goods created. Capitalism is frequently seen as the embodiment of the market economy, and hence may result in the optimum distribution of scarce resources, with a resulting improvement for all; this optimism is countered by pointing to the opportunity for exploitation inherent in the system. Economics The economic system based on private ownership of property and private enterprise. Under this system all, or a major proportion of, economic activity is undertaken by private profit-seeking individuals or organizations, and land and other material means of production are largely privately owned. Under capitalism parts of the economy may be in public ownership. The government may impose certain regulations on the activities of the private sector regarding public health and safety, enforcement of competition, and protection of the environment. Such regulation, however, typically has a form of restrictions: the rules lay down what individuals or firms may not do, but initiative about what is done within these rules is decentralized. World History A system of economic organization, based on market competition, under which the means of production, distribution, and exchange are privately owned and directed by individuals or corporations. All human production requires both labour and capital. In a capitalist system, capital is supplied either by the single owner of a firm, or by shareholders in the case of a joint-stock company. Labour is supplied separately by employees who receive a wage or salary. The residual profit of the firm after wages and costs have been paid accrues to the owners of the capital. Firms compete with one another to sell to customers in what is primarily a free market. In its most developed form capitalism, which is based on the principle that economic decisions should be taken by private individuals, restricts the role of the state in economic policy to the minimum. It thus stands for free trade. During the 20th century capitalist societies were modified in various ways: often a capitalist economy was accompanied by the development of a welfare state, as in western Europe. Another development was the mixed economy, in which the production of certain goods or services was nationalized, while the rest of the economy remained in private ownership. However, the late 20th century saw a reduction of state involvement in and regulation of the economy, with state-owned industries being privatized and a renewed emphasis on the primacy of the market. Recent decades have also seen the growth of multinational companies operating across national frontiers (see globalization), often controlling greater economic resources than small- or medium-sized states.
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