A system of inscribed signs replacing or recording spoken language. Various writing systems worldwide have developed independently. Writing is closely associated with the appearance of civilization, since in simple societies speech and memory were sufficient and there was no need for writing. It was essential, however, for the administration on which civilized states depend. The quipus of the Incas, which were bundles of variously knotted strings, were a simple form of recording information that served the purposes of accounting but lacked the flexibility of other writing systems, whether carved, painted, scratched, impressed, handwritten, or printed.

People had probably attempted writing by 6000 bc and it developed independently in such places as Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, and South America. The earliest forms of writing used simple pictorial signs to represent objects. The Sumerians had developed a pictographical system of writing by about 3400 bc. The Sumerians and Egyptians also used symbols to represent spoken sounds, such as syllables and words.

The first complete alphabet, comprising symbols representing all the vowels and consonants of a language, was devised by the ancient Greeks. They based their alphabet on earlier sound‐based partial alphabets, such as that used by the Phoenicians. Chinese writing uses a system of symbols to represent words or concepts rather than sounds and is not directly linked to pronunciation.

The history of writing has been influenced by technological developments, such as the invention of paper and printing, and by increased literacy due to the expansion of formal education.