Source: MAPS IN MINUTES™ © RH Publications (1997)

A country occupying most of the Iberian Peninsula in south-west Europe.

Physical

Spain is bounded by France across the Pyrenees in the north-east and by Portugal on the west of the plateau, the Meseta, on which most of Spain lies. It has a rugged northern coast on the Atlantic Ocean and a gentler one on the Mediterranean Sea, where the Balearic Islands are found. In the Cantabrian Mountains to the north, iron ore is mined; and from here the Ebro flows eastward into Catalonia. Across the centre the Tagus runs westward to Portugal, while in the south the Guadalquivir flows through the broad valley of Seville. Andalusia and the southern coastal plains are famous for their terraced vineyards, above which rises the Sierra Nevada.

Economy

Spain has a broadly based manufacturing sector; exports include machinery, vehicles, pharmaceuticals, medicines, and other consumer goods. Tourism makes a substantial contribution to the economy. Agriculture concentrates on grains, vegetables, fruit, and livestock raising. Mineral resources include iron ore, zinc, and lead.

History

Spain has been inhabited for at least 20,000 years, and supported at least two early cultures. Celtic peoples began to migrate into Spain during the 9th century bc. Spain began to come under Roman control after 206 bc, after a period of Carthaginian domination. Roman rule was followed, after 415 ad, by that of the Visigoths, who were themselves toppled by Muslim invaders from Morocco (711–18). Moorish Spain reached its zenith under the Umayyad dynasty of al-Andalus (736–1031). During the subsequent political fragmentation, Christian kingdoms became consolidated where Muslim power was weakest, in the north: Aragon and Castile were the most significant of these. By 1248 Christian reconquest had been so successful that only Granada remained in Muslim hands. Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella I of Castile united their respective kingdoms in 1479, reconquered Granada in 1492, and went on to establish unified Spain as a power of European and world significance. (See spanish netherlands.) Under their rule the vast Spanish empire overseas began to take shape, and under their 16th-century successors, Charles V and Philip II, Spain enjoyed its ‘golden age’. Decline set in during the 17th century, the end of Habsburg rule came in 1700 when Philip V became the first Bourbon monarch. The accession of Philip V led to the War of the Spanish Succession (1701–14), in which Spain lost many of its lands in Europe. In 1704 Gibraltar was captured by the British and formally ceded to Britain by the Treaty of Utrecht (1713). Spain has made many claims to have Gibraltar returned and there has been continued friction with Britain over the issue.

In the early 19th century Spain suffered as a result of the Napoleonic Wars and briefly came under French control (1808–14). This defeat encouraged revolution in South America, resulting in the Spanish–South American Wars of Independence, which led to the emergence as independent countries of Argentina, Bolivia, Peru, Venezuela, and Mexico. Spain subsequently remained peripheral and undeveloped in a Europe which was fast becoming industrialized. From 1814 the absolutist monarchy was involved in a struggle with the forces of liberalism, and from 1873–1875 there was a brief republican interlude. In 1898 the Spanish–American War resulted in the loss of Puerto Rico, the Philippines, and Guam, while Cuba, which had been more or less in revolt since 1868, became a US protectorate in 1903. In 1923 General Miguel Primo de Rivera established a virtual dictatorship, which was followed by another republican interlude (1931–39), scarred by the savage Spanish Civil War (1936–39). Nationalist victory resulted in the dictatorship of General Francisco Franco (1939–75). His gradual liberalization of government during the late 1960s was continued by his successor Juan Carlos I, who established a democratic constitutional monarchy. Separatist agitation, often violent, by ETA, an organization seeking independence for the Basque provinces, continued throughout the period. Of its remaining colonies Spain granted independence to Spanish Sahara in 1976, which was divided between Morocco and Mauritania. King Juan Carlos survived attempted military coups in 1978 and 1981, and from 1982 a series of stable, left-of-centre governments were established under Prime Minister Felipe González. Spain joined the EC in 1986. Pressure for greater Catalan autonomy continued. González was defeated in elections in 1996 but the winning right-wing Popular Party gained no overall majority and formed a coalition government, led by José María Aznar. It was re-elected with a large majority in 2000. Spain adopted the euro as its currency in 2002. Following an al-Qaeda bomb attack in Madrid in March 2004, the Popular Party was defeated by the Socialists under José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero. By the time the Socialists were re-elected in 2008, Spain’s economic outlook was worsening, and the Credit Crunch precipitated a crisis: a property price bubble collapsed and the government had to support the weakened banking sector. The consequent rise in the public deficit led the global financial markets to reduce Spain’s credit rating, and the government reacted with austerity measures. These failed to convince the markets while pushing Spain into a severe recession. There were extensive popular demonstrations in 2011 and the Socialists were heavily defeated in the general election by the Popular Party; Mariano Rajoy became Prime Minister. The new government intensified the austerity programme, but continued economic difficulties led to a loss of confidence in 2012 and Spain was unable to finance its deficit by borrowing on the global markets. A €100-million loan was negotiated with the EU to support the banking sector in return for banking reform (see eurozone crisis). Although the markets responded favourably and the crisis passed, the recession continued. In June 2014, Juan Carlos abdicated in favour of his son, who became King Felipe VI. Podemos, a new anti-austerity party, made major gains in the regional elections in May 2015. In the December 2015 election, Podemos faltered and Rajoy’s Popular Party remained the largest party but but failed to form a coalition. A further election took place in June 2016, which again did not give a conclusive result; eventually parliament approved Rajoy as prime minister, and he now leads a weak coalition administration.