“Enlightenment”的概念、定义、翻译、参考文献-科学参考

Enlightenment

Philosophy

The period of European thought characterized by the emphasis on experience and reason, mistrust of religion and traditional authority, and a gradual emergence of the ideals of liberal, secular, democratic societies. In England the movement can be discerned in the 17th century with the writings of Francis Bacon and Hobbes, and in France with the new emphasis on unaided reason in the work of Descartes. But the 18th century saw the full flourishing of the Enlightenment, especially in France (see Encyclopédie), Scotland (see Hume, Smith), and Germany, where the critical philosophy of Kant is both a kind of culmination, and also a portent of the succeeding Romantic period. Although it is difficult to find positive doctrines common to all these thinkers, the Enlightenment is associated with a materialist view of human beings, an optimism about their progress through education and science, and a generally utilitarian approach to society and ethics. However, the Constitution of the United States, which is not a utilitarian document but one based on an ethic of natural rights, is frequently cited as a concrete embodiment of Enlightenment ideals. It has been fashionable in postmodernist circles to talk of the Enlightenment as having had a project, and one which has failed, but the meaning of this criticism remains unclear. See also perfectibility, optimism and pessimism.
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook10.html A list of internet resources on the Enlightenment, including classic writings
http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/course/view.php?name=A207_1 A history of the Enlightenment

World History

The philosophical, scientific, and rational attitudes, the freedom from superstition, and the belief in religious tolerance of much of 18th-century Europe. In Germany the Aufklärung (‘Enlightenment’), which extended from the middle of the 17th century to the beginning of the 19th century, was a literary and philosophical movement that included Gotthold Lessing (1729–81), J. W. von Goethe (1749–1823), and Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805), as well as Immanuel Kant (1724–1804). The Yiddish literature of Eastern Europe experienced a new dynamism, while a similarly invigorating freedom of ideas affected writers as far apart as Sweden, Russia, and Britain. In France the Enlightenment was associated with the philosophes, the literary men, scientists, and thinkers who were united in their belief in the supremacy of reason and their desire to see practical change to combat inequality and injustice. The movement against established beliefs and institutions gained momentum throughout the 18th century under Voltaire (1694–1778), Rousseau, Condorcet, and others. Through the publication of the Encyclopédie (1751–76) their attacks on the government, the church, and the judiciary provided the intellectual basis for the French Revolution.
The English Enlightenment owed its origin both to the political theories of John Locke, and to the French example. Thomas Paine, an admirer of the French, advocated American independence, and many writers and poets transmitted Enlightenment ideas. In Scotland an intellectual movement flourished in Edinburgh between 1750 and 1800; its outstanding philosophers were Hume and Adam Smith and important scientific advances were made in chemistry, geology and medicine. The Encyclopaedia Britannica, began in 1768–71 as a dictionary of the arts and sciences, was issued by a ‘Society of gentlemen in Scotland’. In literature, some have seen a connection between the philosophy of the Enlightenment, the growth of literary realism, and the rise of the novel. It influenced the Romantic movement in the arts by releasing the more individualist attitudes in which this movement was based, and as the Romantics themselves reacted against the coldly scientific intellectualism which the Enlightenment represented.

单词	Enlightenment
释义	Enlightenment Philosophy The period of European thought characterized by the emphasis on experience and reason, mistrust of religion and traditional authority, and a gradual emergence of the ideals of liberal, secular, democratic societies. In England the movement can be discerned in the 17th century with the writings of Francis Bacon and Hobbes, and in France with the new emphasis on unaided reason in the work of Descartes. But the 18th century saw the full flourishing of the Enlightenment, especially in France (see Encyclopédie), Scotland (see Hume, Smith), and Germany, where the critical philosophy of Kant is both a kind of culmination, and also a portent of the succeeding Romantic period. Although it is difficult to find positive doctrines common to all these thinkers, the Enlightenment is associated with a materialist view of human beings, an optimism about their progress through education and science, and a generally utilitarian approach to society and ethics. However, the Constitution of the United States, which is not a utilitarian document but one based on an ethic of natural rights, is frequently cited as a concrete embodiment of Enlightenment ideals. It has been fashionable in postmodernist circles to talk of the Enlightenment as having had a project, and one which has failed, but the meaning of this criticism remains unclear. See also perfectibility, optimism and pessimism. http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/modsbook10.html A list of internet resources on the Enlightenment, including classic writings http://openlearn.open.ac.uk/course/view.php?name=A207_1 A history of the Enlightenment World History The philosophical, scientific, and rational attitudes, the freedom from superstition, and the belief in religious tolerance of much of 18th-century Europe. In Germany the Aufklärung (‘Enlightenment’), which extended from the middle of the 17th century to the beginning of the 19th century, was a literary and philosophical movement that included Gotthold Lessing (1729–81), J. W. von Goethe (1749–1823), and Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805), as well as Immanuel Kant (1724–1804). The Yiddish literature of Eastern Europe experienced a new dynamism, while a similarly invigorating freedom of ideas affected writers as far apart as Sweden, Russia, and Britain. In France the Enlightenment was associated with the philosophes, the literary men, scientists, and thinkers who were united in their belief in the supremacy of reason and their desire to see practical change to combat inequality and injustice. The movement against established beliefs and institutions gained momentum throughout the 18th century under Voltaire (1694–1778), Rousseau, Condorcet, and others. Through the publication of the Encyclopédie (1751–76) their attacks on the government, the church, and the judiciary provided the intellectual basis for the French Revolution. The English Enlightenment owed its origin both to the political theories of John Locke, and to the French example. Thomas Paine, an admirer of the French, advocated American independence, and many writers and poets transmitted Enlightenment ideas. In Scotland an intellectual movement flourished in Edinburgh between 1750 and 1800; its outstanding philosophers were Hume and Adam Smith and important scientific advances were made in chemistry, geology and medicine. The Encyclopaedia Britannica, began in 1768–71 as a dictionary of the arts and sciences, was issued by a ‘Society of gentlemen in Scotland’. In literature, some have seen a connection between the philosophy of the Enlightenment, the growth of literary realism, and the rise of the novel. It influenced the Romantic movement in the arts by releasing the more individualist attitudes in which this movement was based, and as the Romantics themselves reacted against the coldly scientific intellectualism which the Enlightenment represented.
随便看	SCADA scala scalability scalable scalable font scalable processor architecture scalable vector graphics scalar scalar field scalar(for vectors and matrices) scalar matrix scalar multiplication scalar potential scalar product scalar quadratic product scalar quantity scalar triple product greatest happiness principle greatest integer function greatest lower bound greatest value Great Exhibition Great Interglacial Great Leap Forward Great Leap Forward (1958)