The decreasing significance of the manufacturing sector, both in terms of employment, and national production. Bowen (2006) Prof. Geogr. 58, 3 distinguishes between positive deindustrialization—a normal feature of economic development, since, as manufacturing increases, workers are increasingly employed in services—and negative deindustrialization—‘characterized by a vicious cycle linking falling incomes, rising unemployment, the erosion of competitiveness’, and one result of the ‘credit crunch’. In a study of South Africa, Barchiesi and Kenny (2002) Int. Inst. Sociale Geschiedenis 47 observe that it is also marked by low-wage economies, the casualization of employment, and increasing social exclusion.